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In 1015 and again in 1016 forces from the ''taifa'' of Denia, in the east of Muslim Spain (al-Andalus), attacked Sardinia and attempted to establish control over it. In both these years joint expeditions from the maritime republics of Pisa and Genoa repulsed the invaders and preserved Sardinia as a part of Christendom. These Pisan–Genoese expeditions to Sardinia were approved and supported by the Papacy, making them precursors of the Crusades, which began eighty years later.〔Tyerman 2006, 55.〕 The victors, however, turned on each other and the Pisans obtained mastery over the island at the expense of their erstwhile allies. For this reason, the major Christian sources for the expedition primarily belong to Pisa, which celebrated its double victory over the Muslims and the Genoese with an inscription on the walls of its Duomo.〔Orvietani Busch 2001, 168 n35. The only Genoese record of their participation in 1016 is a passing mention in the ''Annales ianuenses'' of Caffarus, where he is quoting the words of some ambassadors for Genoa when they were seeking favour from the Emperor Frederick I in 1165. For French translations of all the pertinent primary sources, cf. Pierre Guichard and Denis Menjot (ed.), (''Pays d'Islam et monde latin, Xe–XIIIe siècle: textes et documents ) (Lyon: Presses Universitaires de Lyon, 2000), 20–23.〕 ==Background== Denia perhaps hosted a naval squadron under the Caliphs of Córdoba in the tenth century; its port was "very good and very old".〔Bruce 2006, 128.〕 According to al-Idrīsī, as quoted in al-Himyarī, its shipyards were important in outfitting its fleet, and these may have been where the fleet launched against Sardinia originated.〔 In 940/1 the Caliphate signed treaties with Amalfi, Barcelona, Narbonne and Sardinia promising safe conduct through those areas until then harassed by pirates based in Fraxinetum, the Balearic Islands〔Only under Abd-ar-Rahman III (912–61) did Fraxinetum and the Balearics come under Caliphal control. Bruce 2006, 130.〕 and the eastern ports of Spain, the so-called ''Sharq al-Andalus'' (including Denia and the famous pirate base of Pechina). There is a recorded embassy from Sardinia to Córdoba in the years immediately following,〔In Ibn Hayyān. Bruce 2006, 130–31.〕 but from 943 to ''c.'' 1000 there are no recorded Muslim attacks on the Christian ports of the western Mediterranean.〔Save in Ibn Khaldūn, who is generally considered in error on this point. Bruce 2006, 131.〕 The Carolingian navy was present in both Pisa and Genoa in the early ninth century.〔According to Einhard, ''Annales regni francorum''; Regino of Prüm and the ''Miracula sancti Genesii''. Bruce 2006, 128 n5.〕 The north Italian cities had sent ships to protect Sardinia from a Muslim fleet in 829,〔In Einhard, ''Annales'', and the anonymous ''Vita Hludowici imperatoris''. Bruce 2006, 132. Sardinia saw Muslim raids in 710, 752, 813, 816, 817 and 935, according to Heywood 1921, 20.〕 but it was probably a Muslim fleet operating out of Sardinia that raided Rome in 841.〔According to the ''Liber pontificalis''. Bruce 2006, 132. For the state of Sardinian politics in this period, cf. Heywood 1921, 15–19.〕 The period of the late tenth and early eleventh centuries corresponded with a large growth in Pisa's population and in its geographical extent: its walls and fortifications doubled in scope and its suburbs grew. It entered into frequent territorial disputes with neighbouring Lucca, often violent, and its need for imports grew commensurately. Genoa, with even less hinterland to support its citizens and its shipyards, was also pressured into looking for new markets.〔〔Jordan 2001, 29.〕 The ''Annales pisani antiquissimi'', the civic annals of Pisa compiled by Bernardus Marangonis, record only a few events from the tenth century, and all have to do with the waging of war. In 970 "the Pisans were in Calabria", probably making war on its Muslim occupants in order to secure safe passage for their merchants through the Strait of Messina that separated Muslim Sicily from the peninsula.〔The Muslim geographer Ibn Hawqal notes that the Calabrian Greeks often paid tribute to the Sicilian Muslims, and the ''Cronica di Cambridge'' records the presence of a mosque in Reggio di Calabria as late as the second half of the tenth century, testifying to a sizable Muslim settlement there. Bruce 2006, 129.〕 The ''Annales'' also record a Muslims naval attack on Pisa in 1004 and a Pisan victory over the Muslims off Reggio in 1005.〔Also recorded in the ''Breviarium Pisanae Historiae'' and Ranieri Sardo, ''Cronaca di Pisa''. Bruce 2006, 129; cf. F. Novati, "Un nuovo testo degli ''Annales Pisani antiquissimi'' e le prime lotte di Pisa contra gli Arabi", ''Centenario della nascita di Michele Amari'', vol. 2 (Palermo: 1910).〕 The Muslim assault of 1004 may have originated in Spain, or it may have been a typical pirate raid. The Pisan attack was likely a response, and perhaps a serious attempt to put an end to Muslim piracy, for which Reggio served as a perennial base.〔Bruce 2006, 129–30.〕 In 1006 an embassy from the Byzantine emperor Basil II to the court of the caliph Hishām II released some Andalusian soldiers that had been captured off the coasts of Corsica and Sardinia.〔There may be some unknown relation between this Byzantine embassy and the captives of 1006 and the Pisan expedition against Reggio in 1005. It may also show Byzantine interest in Sardinia continuing into the eleventh century, otherwise it ended in the early tenth. Bruce 2006, 131–32.〕 Together with Sicily, Corsica and Sardinia comprised the "route of the islands" which linked the north Italian towns to the markets of northern Africa and the eastern Mediterranean. Without control of the islands the expansion of Pisan and Genoese mercantile ventures would have been severely hampered.〔Bruce 2006, 133.〕 The rise of Pisan and Genoese trading in connexion with increased military activity, especial against the enemies of the Church, has a contemporary parallel on the other side of Italy in the burgeoning Republic of Venice.〔〔Erdmann 1977, 111.〕 In 1011 the Pisan annals record that a "fleet from Spain" came to destroy the city, which suggests that the aggression was planned and organised and not merely a piratical raid. The most probable source of the fleet was the port of Denia, then ruled by Mujāhid al-‘Āmirī (Mogehid). According to the chronicle of Ibn ‘Idhārī, Mujāhid received Denia from the Córdoban ''hājib'' Muhammad Ibn Abī ‘Āmir al-Manṣūr, who died in 1002. It is unclear from Ibn ‘Idhārī whether Mujāhid conquered the Balearics from his base at Denia, or whether he took control of Denia from a base in the Balearics.〔Bruce 2006, 131.〕 A Muslim enclave was perhaps established by Mujāhid's predecessor as ruler of the Balearics around 1000. Pope John VIII, since Sardinia lay directly across the Tyrrhenian Sea from Rome, urged the Christian lay powers to expel the Muslims from the island in 1004.〔Jordan 2001, 34.〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Pisan–Genoese expeditions to Sardinia」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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